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Volume 12, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  The Effects of Brain-Based Learning on Academic Achievement and Retention of Knowledge in Science Course
  by Muhammet Ozden Anadolu University
  Mehmet Gultekin Anadolu University

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of brain-based learning in a 5th grade Science course on academic achievement and retention of previously acquired knowledge. This experimental study, which was designed as pre- and post-test control group model, was conducted in 2004-2005 academic year at Kütahya Abdurrahman Pasa Primary School in Kütahya, Turkey. Two classes, namely 5-A and 5-B, were determined as experimental and control groups respectively. The participants of this study were 22 fifth graders from each group. The study lasted 11 days for a total of 18 class hours. During the research process, the experimental group was administered a brain-based learning approach, while the control group was administered a traditional teaching approach. Analysis of post-test and retention level tests revealed a significant difference between the groups favoring brain-based learning.

Correspondence should be addressed to Muhammet Ozden (Email: muhammet_ozden@yahoo.com), Anadolu University, Turkey or Mehmet Gultekin (Email: mgulteki@anadolu.edu.tr), Anadolu University, Turkey.

• Article 2-
  A Review and Analysis of the NSF Portfolio in Regard to Research on Science Teacher Education
  Robert D. Sherwood, Indiana University
  Deborah L. Hanson, Hanover Collegey

Some of this analysis was undertaken while the first author was a Program Director at the National Science Foundation. However, any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Several recent policy papers have called for science education to be based on substantive research activities that provide guidance for the field both in teacher preparation and student learning. For example, America's Pressing Challenge - Building a Strong Foundation (2006) calls for the country to "Invest in research on teaching and learning that will better inform development of science and mathematics curricula and pedagogical approaches." (p.5). In an attempt to understand what the National Science Foundation has supported in terms of research within science education teacher education a review was undertaken based upon the publicly available NSF Awards Database in regard to projects funded. The database for selected programs at NSF contained over 3000 awards for the time period January 1, 1996 to January 1, 2006 however the percentage of awards that were deemed to represent research studies in regard to science teacher education were a very small fraction of these awards (approximately 2.5%). The awards that were identified were categorized by research method, grade level and project focus. Selected awards were also reviewed to see if the results of the studies could be found in the science education literature. Implications for policy and the research community are discussed.

Correspondence should be addressed to Robert D. Sherwood (Email: rdsherwo@indiana.edu), School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405, or Deborah L. Hanson (Email: hanson@hanover.edu ), Hanover College Hanover, IN 47243

• Article 3-
  Students' Comprehension of Science Concepts Depicted in Textbook Illustrations
  Michelle Cook, PhD, Clemson University

FVisual representations are commonly used in science instruction to enhance learning. In this study, 86 high school biology students were asked to study an illustration of meiosis to determine their ability to recognize, understand, and interpret textbook images. Data collected from interview and written responses to questions revealed that while the task helped them learn about the topic of meiosis in terms of labeling structures and describing the phases, students were unable to communicate an understanding of the overall purpose of meiosis. The findings of this study have implications for the design and scaffolding of visual representations.

Correspondence should be addressed to Michelle Cook (Email: mcook@clemson.edu), Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina.

• Article 4-
  Bad wolf kills lovable rabbits: children's attitudes toward predator and prey
  Pavol Prokop, Trnava University, Slovak Academy of Sciences
  Milan Kubiatko, Trnava University

This cross-age study explores children's attitude toward a model predator (wolf) and prey (rabbit). We administered a Likert-type attitude questionnaire with 30 items (15 per predator and 15 per prey) to a total of 462 children aged 10 - 15 year in Slovakia. The mean score from three dimensions derived by a factor analysis (scientific, ecologistic and myths about parental care) was then subjected for pair wise comparisons. We found that younger children aged 10-11 year showed significantly more positive attitude toward a rabbit (prey) relative to wolf (predator). However, as children's age increased, the difference in means score disappear and positive attitudes toward predator and prey generally decrease. We hypothesize that these patterns could reflect either greater children's 'ecological thinking' or, more simply, decreasing interest toward animals in older children. The difference in attitudes toward predator and prey suggest that children's affective domain should not be neglected in future environmental programs, because attitudes influence pro-environmental behavior of future citizens.

Correspondence should be addressed to Pavol Prokop (Email: pavol.prokop@savba.sk), Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia,, or Milan Kubiatko (Email: mkubiatko@centrum.sk), Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia

Volume 11, Issue 2

• Article 1-
  Perceptions of Head Agricultural Science Teachers Regarding Problems and Challenges of Vocational Agriculture Delivery in Secondary Schools in Delta State, Nigeria
  Canice N. Ikeoji, Delta State University
  Christian C. Agwubike,Delta State University
  Joseph O. Disi, Delta State University

The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions of head agricultural science teachers regarding problems and challenges of vocational agriculture delivery in secondary schools in Delta State. The population included all agricultural science teachers (n = 915) in Delta State from which a purposive sample of 370 agricultural science teachers were drawn. A total of 290 (80%) copies of a 47 item-questionnaire distributed were correctly filled and used for this study. Data were analysed with frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations. The result showed among others that conducting regular continuous assessment/tests was the most frequently used technique of vocational agriculture delivery among agricultural science teachers while poor funding of vocational agriculture in secondary schools and keeping abreast with developments in the field of agriculture and communication of such developments to students were the most perceived problems and challenges of vocational agriculture delivery in secondary schools. The study recommended that these perceived problems and challenges by head agricultural science teachers be built into short-period in-service education and refresher programmes of serving teachers in agricultural science.

Correspondence should be addressed to Canice N. Ikeoji (Email: cnamek@yahoo.com), Christian C. Agwubike or Joseph O. Disi (Email: jdexcelforever@yahoo.com), Department Of Vocational Education, Agricultural Education Unit Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria

• Article 2-
  Creating Constructivist Physics for Introductory University Classes
  Jennifer Wilhelm, Texas Tech University
  Beth Thacker, Texas Tech University
  Ronald Wilhelm, Texas Tech University

We describe the setting and effectiveness of a constructivist, project-enhanced environment in an Introductory Physics course. Force Concept Inventory measurements show that students made significant gains in their understandings of mechanics concepts. Student interviews revealed that group project work assisted in students’ assimilation of course material.

Correspondence should be addressed to Jennifer Wilhelm, Texas Tech University, Email: jennifer.wilhelm@ttu.edu

• Article 3-
  Capturing Science Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs: The Development of the Teacher Beliefs Interview
  Julie A. Luft, Arizona State University
  Gillian H. Roehrig, University of Minnesota

For the last five years we have used a semi-structured interview, which we refer to as the Teacher Beliefs Interview, to explore the beliefs of beginning secondary science teachers who were involved in different induction programs. Our initial questions focused on teacher epistemologies and probed the beliefs of beginning and experienced teachers, while our process of interviewing utilized methods common in qualitative research. In reviewing and refining our interview process, we developed maps that allowed us to describe and define various beliefs held by pre-service, beginning/induction, and experienced science teachers. Our current Teacher Beliefs Interview is based upon the analysis of semi-structured interviews with over 100 pre-service, induction, and in- service science teachers. Ultimately, these maps have allowed us to track the development of science teachers, while providing feedback regarding the effectiveness of our pre-service and induction programs.

Correspondence should be addressed to Julie Luft, Science Education, PO Box 870911, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA, Email: Julie.Luft@asu.edu

Volume 11, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  Metaphors in Science and Art: Enhancing Human Awareness and Perception
  Guy Ashkenazi, The Hebrew University

Science and art are commonly considered as two separate cultures, which differ in both tongue and value. However, while the material artifacts produced by science and art are markedly different, the creative cognitive process of their construction is closely related  both cultures use a metaphorical language, which sharpens perception of details and enhances awareness of structure. The strong societal association of science with technology and of art with aesthetics masks the cognitive similarities. By re-emphasizing these similarities, we hope to gain access to a student population who was previously alienated by the utilitarian, impersonal presentation of science.

Correspondence should be addressed to Guy Ashkenazi, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel Email: guy@fh.huji.ac.il

• Article 2-
  (Dis)Interest in Science: How Perceptions About Grades May Be Discouraging Girls
  Sidney N. Mitchell, University of Maine
  Dianne L. Hoff, University of Maine

In spite of advances in many fields, women are still under-represented in the sciences. In this paper, we report the results of a study investigating the perceptions of high school girls enrolled in science classes on whether hard work leads to success, if they are receiving the scores they deserve, and if the assessment system used in class is unfair. Analyses indicated that girls received better grades than boys, but generally believed that hard work does not lead to success and that the grading system is not completely fair. The findings suggest subtle ways that classrooms may be discouraging girls, and recommendations for teaching practices in science education to address this problem are provided.

Correspondence should be addressed to Sidney N. Mitchell, PhD, College of Education and Human Development, 5749 Merrill Hall, Room 223, University of Maine, Orono ME 04469-5749 Telephone (207) 581-3435, Fax (207) 581-3120. Email: sid.mitchell@maine.edu

• Article 3-
  The Suitability of External Control-Groups for Empirical Control Purposes: a Cautionary Story in Science Education Research
  Franz-Josef Scharfenberg, University of Bayreuth
  Franz X. Bogner, University of Bayreuth
  Siegfried Klautke, University of Bayreuth

This article deals with a specific effect in one external control group incorporated to account for any pretest bias in a more comprehensive cognitive achievement study in a gene technology lab (as part of a modified Solomons four-group plan). We monitored 12th graders (N = 117) in two external groups without any intervention: a one-test group (n = 55) and a three-test group (n = 62). Both samples participated in identical tests which quantified the relevant knowledge of the lesson unit applied in the main study. The three-test group yielded an unexpected increase in achievement scores. Subsequent analysis revealed two subsamples: one with no changes, the other with an increase (although without an intervention took place). A likely reason for the latter situation may lie in the role of the teacher(s) involved who might have wish to avoid potential negative results in his/her class. Consequently, we recommend the application of a modified Solomons four group plan in science education research in order to prevent the influence of teacher intervention in future empirical analyses.

Correspondence should be addressed to Franz-Josef Scharfenberg, Centre of Math & Science Education, University of Bayreuth, Institute of Biology Didactics, Universitätsstr. 30, D-95445 Bayreuth, Germany. Phone: ++49-921-55-2590; Fax: ++49-921-55-2696. Email: franz-josef.scharfenberg@uni-bayreuth.de.

• Article 4-
  The Origin and Extent of Students Understandings: The Effect of Various Kinds of Factors in Conceptual Understanding in Volcanism
  Burckin Dal, Istanbul Technical University

This study investigated and compared 130 students perceptions of volcanoes and volcanic activity from an inner city elementary school (Year 6), middle school (Year 9) and student teachers in the science education department. A qualitative and quantitative methodology was used for this investigation. The data collection was based on three research stages: collection of information by the association of ideas, a Q-Sort test and a questionnaire with open-ended questions. The findings indicated that the sample possessed an incomplete picture of volcanoes and volcanic activity including many alternative conceptions about it. Both the students and the student teachers had surprisingly similar alternative conceptions despite the fact that the latter received more instruction on this topic. Moreover, over the course of the curriculum, a closer relationship between alternative conceptions and accepted scientific knowledge was evident. Hence, it was possible to map out the categories of alternative conceptions of volcanism and to measure the influence of the curriculum by looking at the evolution of these alternative conceptions. Based on the results, some suggestions to help teachers and students avoid critical barriers to learning that may be difficult to overcome later in their education are presented.

Correspondence should be addressed to Burckin Dal, Istanbul Technical University Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences 34469, Maslak, Istanbul / Turkey Email: dalbu@itu.edu.tr

• Article 5-
  Investigating the Effects of an Aquatic Ecology Graduate Course for Teachers: Linking Teaching to the Environment and Community
  Yvonne Meichtry, Northern Kentucky University
  Jeff Smith, Northern Kentucky University

The purposes of this study were to determine the impact of a graduate teacher education course on the confidence levels and classroom practices of teachers. The three-credit hour, field-based course was taught during the summer using a two-week workshop and one follow-up day format. Place-based teaching approaches were utilized during the course. These approaches were designed to immerse teachers in studies of their local aquatic environment and community-based resources that are associated with the aquatic environment. Pre, post, and delayed post-survey data were analyzed using MANOVA and ANOVA measures to determine changes in the teachers confidence levels and classroom practices. Positive changes were found in the teachers confidence and classroom teaching in the use of various instructional technology, standards-based teaching strategies, community resources, field investigations, and in the teaching of water quality topics, real life topics, societal issues, and career education. An analysis of responses to open-ended questions on the delayed post-survey revealed the strengths of the course in regard to the learning of science content, instructional pedagogy and applications to classroom teaching, the potential impact on K-12 student learning, and barriers to implementing desired classroom practices. Implications and recommendations are presented that can be generalized across a variety of educational programs.

Correspondence should be addressed to Yvonne Meichtry, Northern Kentucky University, Email: meichtryy@nku.edu or Jeff Smith, Northern Kentucky University, Email: smithj@nku.edu

• Article 6-
  Learning Junior Secondary Science through Multi-Modal Representations
  Bruce Waldrip, University of Southern Queensland
  Vaughan Prain, La Trobe University
  Jim Carolan, La Trobe University

There is growing recognition that learning science in school entails understanding and linking verbal, visual and mathematical modes to develop knowledge of scientific concepts and processes. However, students face considerable challenges in engaging effectively with these literacies of science as they interpret and construct scientific texts. Our paper reports on two case studies on the topics of the particle theory of matter in Year 7, and force in Year 8. We aimed to identify (a) students understandings of, and capacity to link, different representational modes to develop conceptual knowledge, and (b) teachers perceptions of, and strategies to support, learning through this interlocking modal focus. Analyzed qualitative data included work samples, and focus-group interviews, as well as observations and interviews with participant teachers. The findings indicated that this multi-modal focus posed significant demands on learners, but had the potential to enable effective learning.

Correspondence should be addressed to Bruce Waldrip, University of Southern Queensland, Email: waldrip@usq.edu.au

• Article 7-
  Designing and Using Program-specific Evaluation Instruments
  Leslie Garrison, San Diego State University
  Olga Amaral, San Diego State University

This paper describes the development and use of a program-specific evaluation instrument designed to measure the impact of professional development on classroom practice. The evaluation rubric describes a sequence of skills or proficiencies that guides teachers and professional developers toward improved practice. The design and implementation of the instrument: defines the program instructional targets, guides professional development, makes target instructional skills explicit to teachers, and aligns program evaluation with program instructional targets.

EJSE Volumes 1 to 10 (Published by University of Nevada)

Volume 10, Issue 4-Coming Soon

Volume 10, Issue 3-Coming Soon

Volume 10, Issue 2-Coming Soon

Volume 10, Issue 1-Coming Soon

Volume 9, Issue 4-Coming Soon

Volume 9, Issue 3-Coming Soon

Volume 9, Issue 2-Coming Soon

Volume 9, Issue 1-Coming Soon

Volume 8, Issue 4-Coming Soon

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Volume 8, Issue 1-Coming Soon

Volume 7, Issue 4

• Article 1-
  Adolescent Students' Images of an Environmental Scientist: An Opportunity for Constructivist Teaching
  by Jeff Thomas, University of Southern Indiana
  Rosalina V. Hairston, University of Southern Mississippi

The constructivist theory of building knowledge has influenced our understanding of learning and the practice of teaching. Studies on children's conception reveal that the learner actively constructs a meaning for the new information in the context of one's prior knowledge and personal experiences. This quantitative study presents a method of investigating the perceptions of 757 adolescent students about an environmental scientist and how their perceptions justify the use of constructivist learning model in environmental education. The projective instrument called Draw A Scientist Test (DAST) developed by Chambers (1983) and the scoring rubric called Draw a Scientist Test Checklist (DAST-C) designed by Finson, Beaver, and Cramond (1995) were adapted for this study. The resulting instrument called Draw an Environmental Scientist (DAEST) was used to collect the perceptions of junior high and high school students from eight rural schools in the southeastern region of the United States. The findings reveal that students perceive the image of an environmental scientist as a mosaic consisting of the standard image of a scientist, with alternative images related to gender, ethnic origin, and age. Additional images depicted by the locale, type and nature of the work, and the emotions of an environmental scientist were also drawn. To a large extent, the images reflect the students' prior knowledge and personal experiences with local surroundings and persons in science-related occupations. This study provides evidence that adolescent students are capable of constructing knowledge about an environmental scientist by using their prior learning and experiences. The results of this study support the use of constructivist-based curriculum and instructional strategies in environmental science education to enhance students' conceptual learning about the environment.

• Article 2-
  Integrating Electronic Forums and Concept Mapping With a Science Methods Course for Preservice Elementary Teachers
  by James A. Rye, Ph.D., Associate Professor, West Virginia University
  Andrew D. Katayama, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, United States Air Force Academy

Teachers cite insufficient release time as a barrier for learning and planning to implement instructional technology. Undergraduate methods courses should respond by providing experiences for future educators to learn with technology. An action research project that spanned three annual offerings of an elementary science methods course sought to enhance preservice teachers' perceptions of the educational value and degree to which they would like to employ electronic forums and concept mapping. Related assignments engaged preservice teachers in developing, implementing in practicum, and sharing science instruction with their peers. Post-course ratings (years 1998, 1999, 2000) of preservice teachers' perceptions of the value and future use of electronic forums and concept mapping were analyzed via one-way ANOVA with Tukey paired comparisons: Statistically significant (p's = .000 to .011) increases were revealed for the year 2000 compared to one or both of the earlier offerings. These technology tools can foster a community-centered learning environment for preservice teachers while helping them master professional preparation competencies set forth in the National Educational Technology Standards.

• Article 3-
  Rules of Engagement: Proceed with Caution when Integrating Multimedia Learning Tools into Existing Course Formats
  by Mary Elizabeth Dawson, Ph.D.
  Steven Skinner, Ed.D.
  Arthur Zeitlin, Ed.D., Kingsborough Community College of The City University of New York

This paper investigates the effectiveness of the integration of a multimedia learning tool into an existing human anatomy and physiology course. Student outcomes were measured, and the change in student performance as a result of adding a multimedia learning approach is presented.

• Article 4-
  Science as a way of knowing: Using Reader Response as a means to construct a personal understanding of science literature.
  by Robert W. Blake, Jr., Ph.D.
  rblake@towson.edu
  Towson University
  Robert W. Blake, Ed.D., State University of New York College At Brockport
  

Reader Response, a three-component sequence of responding to text: initial response, feeling response, and memory response, was used to allow undergraduate elementary education pre-service interns to write reflective narratives to both fiction and non-fiction science related literature in an environmental science class. Reader Response provided a means for interns to understand scientific writing by constructing their own personal meaning of what they had read. Results from this project provide insight into how we can use science related literature as a means to move beyond science content and allow students opportunities to apply scientific understanding that is relevant to their lives. Implications of this study extend to elementary grades where children can incorporate reader response and respond to the embedded science in children's literature and extend an understanding of how scientific information impacts on their personal lives.

Volume 7, Issue 3

• Article 1-
  Sisters in Sport Science: A Sport-Oriented Science and Mathematics Enrichment Program
  by Penny L. Hammrich, Ph.D.
  Kathy Fadigan, Ed.D. Tina Sloan Green, Temple University
  Greer M. Richardson, Ph.D., LaSalle University
  Beverly Livingston, Ph.D., Widener University

Sisters in Sport Science(SISS) addresses the need for urban girls to gain equitable access to science and mathematics education by using sport as a vehicle for learning. Specifically this need is based on the rising public concern over the equity gap in science and mathematics; recognition of the significant impact intervention programs targeting urban girls have on school success; and the call for systemic educational reforms that recognize the limits girls face in post secondary education and employment opportunities.

• Article 2-
  Students' Problem Solving Strategies in Stoichiometry and their Relationships to Conceptual Understanding and Learning Approaches
  by Saouma BouJaoude
  Hala Barakat, American University of Beirut

The purpose of this study was to describe and classify the strategies high school students use when solving stoichiometry problems and compare and contrast problem solving strategies of students with different learning approaches and different conceptual understanding levels. Subjects were forty students enrolled in two sections of a Grade 11 class in a highly selective private school in Lebanon. Three sources of data were utilized in this study: The Learning Approach Questionnaire (LAQ), the Stoichiometry Test, and unstructured interviews. The problem solving strategies used by the students were classified into three categories: correct strategies, incorrect strategies, and incomplete strategies. The correct strategies were further subdivided into algorithmic, efficient, and messy while the incorrect strategies were subdivided into Incorrect strategies-Incorrect answer and Incorrect strategies-Correct answer. Results showed that learning approach was not related to conceptual understanding or to specific types of problem solving strategies and that the overwhelming number of strategies used were algorithmic with very few efficient ones. Moreover, conceptual understanding was found to be a determining factor in students' success in solving the problems.

• Article 3-
  Interactive and Affective Behaviors of Teaching Assistants in a First Year Physics Laboratory
  by Zahra Hazari
  A.W. Key
  John Pitre, University of Toronto

In this study, we identified interactive and affective behaviors of laboratory teaching assistants that are directly related to student satisfaction and student attitude towards the physics laboratory. Our data came from systematic observation of nine teaching assistants, student evaluations, and student marks. Analysis of the student evaluations and the student marks showed that students were able to make judgments regarding their teaching assistant that were independent of their assigned grade. We found a significant positive correlation between favorable student evaluations and the fraction of interactions in the laboratory that were initiated by the teaching assistant as well as the total interaction frequency. We also found that student evaluations were positively correlated with affective categories that we identified. The results of this study indicate that the proactive interaction and affective demeanor of a teaching assistant are good predictors of student enjoyment and appreciation of the physics laboratory.

• Article 4-
  Higher Education in Environmental Sciences: The Effects of Incorporating Expert Information in Group Discussions of a Transdisciplinary Case Study
  by Ralf Hansmann
  Roland W. Scholz, Eidgen–ssische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH), Switzerland Helmut W. Crott
  Albert-Ludwigs-Universit”t Freiburg i. Br., Germany
  Harald A. Mieg, Eidgen–ssische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH), Switzerland

This article analyzes the impact of expert information on learning effects of students who participated in a transdisciplinary case study as part of a curriculum of Higher Education in Environmental Sciences. 80 master program students of Environmental Natural Sciences at Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich in their fourth year were involved in a case study on ecological regional planning. The study included a field experiment, which examined how different formats of group discussions influence the students' judgments on impact relations (IRs) between variables relevant to the case. The formats were (a) conventional group discussions, versus (b) group discussions including the preliminary disclosure of expert judgments. The analysis showed that in the experimental and the control groups, the students' individual judgments approached the expert judgments in the course of the discussions. This tendency was significantly stronger in the groups where the expert estimates were disclosed. However, there were only minor differences between the two conditions with respect to the students' confidence in their judgments. A longitudinal analysis comparing the students' judgments at the beginning vs. at the end of the case study showed that the judgments approached the expert judgments during the case study. This was true for IRs where expert information was given as part of the experiment, as well as for IRs where no expert information was given. The discussion addresses possible didactical conclusions and perspectives for further research.

Volume 7, Issue 2

• Article 1-
  No Time for Venus Flytraps: Effects of End-of-Course Testing on Biology Curriculum in Two States
  by Julie F. Westerlund, Southwest Texas State University
  Leslie K. Upson, University of Georgia
  James P. Barufaldi, University of Texas
  

This study compared teacher perceptions about state-mandated biology end-of-course examinations in North Carolina and Texas. Heuristic inquiries, of five Texas and nine North Carolina high school biology teachers were conducted over two years. Data were collected by audio-recorded interviews, discussions, personal journals, observations and open-ended questionnaires. Results indicate that biology courses with end-of-course testing; 1) cover too many topics, 2) move at a rapid pace that is determined by the number of topics rather than student understanding, 3) replace biology curriculum instructional time with practice tests and other test preparation activities, 4) diminish emphasis on laboratory and field investigations and 5) are not based on scientific inquiry or student interests in biology. Our study is significant in three ways. First, it provides information through teacher perceptions about the influence of end-of-course examinations on curriculum and instruction. Secondly, it is unique in that it examines the influence of these examinations through case-study analyses conducted by researchers who were also practicing high school biology teachers. Thirdly, it is unique in that it compares the perceptions of biology teachers concerning end-of-course testing in North Carolina and Texas, states with the longest history of end-of-course testing.

• Article 2-
  Science History as a Means to Teach Nature of Science Concepts: Using the Development of Understanding Related to Mechanisms of Inheritance
  by Justin G. Lonsbury
  James D. Ellis, University of Kansas

Nature of science concepts constitute a large part of what it means to be science literate. Along with teaching science content, it is important that teachers use instructional strategies to teach nature of science concepts. This study sought to examine the degree to which integrating small amounts of science history material into "normal" instruction helps to teach nature of science concepts. The study also sought to assess the effects of history of science integration on the acquisition of science content knowledge. The study was of a nonequivalent groups pre-posttest design and consisted of two groups, the history integration group and the "normal" instruction group. The history integration group was exposed to science history content within a typical introductory biology genetics unit. The "normal" instruction group received similar instruction without the added science history. The results showed that the history integration group achieved significantly higher pre- to posttest gains on Rubba's (1977) Nature of Scientific Knowledge Scale whole test and testable subscale scores. No significant differences were found on any other subscales. The groups also showed no significant difference in pre- to posttest gains on a researcher/teacher-designed genetics unit exam. Although this study provides no definitive answers, it does show that incorporating manageable amounts of science history into "normal" classroom instruction has the potential to increase students' knowledge of nature of science concepts without detracting from content knowledge acquisition. At the very least, the study shows that incorporating science history does not detract from content knowledge acquisition.

• Article 3-
  Promoting Science Instruction and Assessment for English Language Learners
  by Okhee Lee
  Mary A. Avalos, University of Miami

Despite efforts to ensure that all students receive equivalent content instruction and fair assessment, opportunities to learn science may be limited for English language learners (ELL's), for various reasons. This paper addresses issues of science instruction and assessment with ELL's. First, the importance of science learning for all students, particularly ELL's, is stressed. Second, the current status of science instruction and assessment for ELL's is reviewed. Finally, effective policies and practices for science instruction and assessment that enables ELLs to become effective learners are described. Educators at various levels of the educational system should make efforts to provide resources and opportunities that meet the learning needs of all students, including ELL's. With innovative and creative planning, much more can be done without overburdening the current system. In providing quality science instruction for all students, the education system should prepare students to become educated citizens and to participate effectively in a multilingual and multicultural society.

Volume 7, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  Mentoring Preservice Teachers of Primary Science
  by Peter Hudson
  Keith Skamp, Southern Cross University
  

Perceptions of mentors' practices related to primary science teaching were obtained from final year preservice teachers after a 4-week practicum. Responses to a survey (n=59), constructed through literature-based practices and attributes of effective mentors, identified perceived strengths and weaknesses in the area of mentoring preservice teachers of primary science. Through exploratory factor analysis, this pilot study also tested the unidimensionality of mentoring practices and attributes assigned to categories (factors) that may characterise mentoring in primary science teaching. These suggested factors, namely, personal attributes, system requirements, pedagogical knowledge, modelling, and feedback had Cronbach alpha coefficients of internal consistency reliability of 0.93, 0.78, 0.94, 0.90, and 0.81 respectively. Survey responses indicated that mentors generally do not provide specific mentoring in primary science teaching. It is argued that science education reform requires the identification of factors and associated attributes and practices of mentoring primary science in order to effectively develop preservice teachers in primary science teaching.

• Article 2-
  Mentors and Modelling Primary Science Teaching Practices
  by Peter Hudson, NSW Department of Education and Training, Queensland University of Technology
  

Final year preservice teachers' perceptions of their mentoring in primary science teaching were gathered through a survey from two separate studies. The two studies (n=331, n=60) provided an indication of the degree mentors model primary science teaching practices. This research argues that mentors need to model primary science teaching particularly in the areas of modelling: enthusiasm, classroom management and a rapport with students, science teaching, and effective science teaching with well-designed lessons that include hands-on experiences. Mentors also need to model syllabus language so that mentees develop appropriate discourse towards understanding science teaching practices. The key study results (n=331, from nine Australian universities involved in primary teacher education) indicated that on average 55% of mentors did not model primary science teaching in each of the associated mentoring practices (mean range: 2.68 to 3.66, standard deviation range: 1.22 to 1.30).

• Article 3-
  The Status of Science Education Doctoral Programs in the United States: The Need for Core Knowledge and Skills.
  by Paul C. Jablon, Lesley University

The last study of science education doctoral programs in the United States was completed over two decades ago. Since then there have been major standards, curriculum and school change initiatives that should have had an impact on framing the structure of these doctoral programs. This article synthesizes and analyzes the data from two surveys regarding science education doctoral programs. The first survey elicited data from 64 science education doctoral program heads about the status of their programs. The second elicited data from deans and heads of schools and departments of education about the need for and qualities expected of science education doctoral graduates. The findings, although encompassing the broad scope of content and skills of doctoral programs, have a particular focus on the need for enrichment in the areas of urban science teaching, the nature of science, and effective school change strategies in science education.

• Article 4-
  Enhancing Inservice Teacher's Constructivist Epistemology through the Development and Redesign of Inquiry-based Investigations together with their Students
  by Elaine AbuSharbain, Southern Illinois University

This paper summarizes a two-year professional development project with twenty-three inservice teachers. Teachers were charged with the task of developing inquiry investigations correlated with the Illinois Standards in a state funded project titled "Connecting Outdoor Instruction to the Illinois Learning Standards" (COIILS). Scientific investigations on the school grounds were developed, piloted and peer tested. Students then field-tested and redesigned the activities to test student-derived hypotheses. One purpose of this project was to facilitate a shift in teachers' constructivist epistemology. Positive changes were found in teacher's endorsements of the Constructivist Learning Environment Survey - Teacher Form. Significant change was noted in students' knowledge about scientific process. The utilization of this inquiry-based investigation design/redesign model may be one step in developing an effective professional development program for teachers in the area of science education. The project can be viewed at http://web.stclair.k12.il.us/splashd/Experimt.htm

• Article 5-
  Science Graduate Students Doing Science Outreach: Participation Effects and Perceived Barriers to Participation
  by Aram deKoven
  Deborah J. Trumbull, Cornell University

Science outreach programs, in which university personnel offer educational services to their communities, are becoming more common. As yet there is little research documenting effects of these programs. The current research examined how participation in outreach affected science graduate students. This study used a survey and in-depth interviews with 25 doctoral students and one post-doctoral student. Students most involved in outreach education experienced a sense of accomplishment, legitimate breaks from their research, and an enhanced ability to communicate and conceptualize science concepts. Graduate students less involved in outreach activities indicated aspects of graduate study that made participation in scientific outreach work difficult. Information about these benefits and barriers is valuable as science outreach programs are being developed, supported, and evaluated

• Article 6-
  Collaborating to Study Science Teaching: A Case Study
  by Frank E. Crawley, East Carolina University
  Jon E. Pedersen, University of Oklahoma

The purpose of this study was to form a science teacher and graduate-student researcher team in which its members engaged in a study of science teaching, and to examine the progress of the team's work through the creation of a case study. A graduate student and science teacher team was formed in one high school, and used collaborative action research methods to investigate students' learning in a general education biology course. As well, the action research project was used to examine the attempt of the research team (graduate student and teacher) to change instructional patterns in the teacher's classroom. Records were maintained throughout the project and examined to arrive at the study results, which revealed mixed success in improving learning and making change within the context of the classroom. Three tentative conclusions were warranted from an examination of the results of the case study:
1. A chain of reasoning exists that inhibits reform of existing teaching practices in ways that engage students,
2. Formation of a science teacher-graduate student team facilitates the adoption of a critical perspective on instruction, and
3. Beliefs about science teaching are firmly established and difficult to alter.

• Article 7-
  Visual Thinking Networking Promotes Problem Solving Achievement for 9th Grade Earth Science Students
  by Palma J. Longo, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
  O.R. Anderson, Columbia University, Teachers College
  Paul Wicht, Byram Hills High School,Armonk, N.Y

An experimental (pre-post control) and interview based-design was used to test the efficacy of a new generation of knowledge representation and metacognitive learning strategies called visual thinking networking (VTN). These new strategies are conceptualized from the current understanding of how one builds a picture of the external world, stores, and recalls this new knowledge from memory. Students constructed network diagrams on paper using black pens or colored pencils to make their drawings, These network diagrams contained words (semantic elements) and figural elements connected by lines and other representations of linkages to represent knowledge relationships. This article addresses one of the main research questions; i.e., to what extent earth science learning was improved by students utilizing VTN strategies compared to controls who used other strategies of learning including writing assignments. A multi-covariate analysis was conducted on the pre-post gain scores of the AGI/NSTA Earth Science Examination (Part 1) from fifty-six 9th grade earth science students. Findings from this analysis significantly established a causal relationship between the improvement of earth science learning and the utilization of visual thinking networks. Earth science learning was improved in the area of problem solving for those students who used VTN strategies (color and black/white). Students who used the VTN strategies (color or black/white) had a significantly higher mean gain score on the problem solving criterion test items than students who used the writing strategy for learning science
(p =.005). Earth science learning was most improved in the area of problem solving for those students who used color VTNs. Students who used the color VTN strategies for learning science had a significantly higher mean gain score on the problem solving criterion test items than students who used the black/white VTN (p = .003) and the control group that used writing strategies (p < .001) for learning science. The use of color VTN strategies enhanced problem solving achievement gains for female students. The findings indicated the importance of using color in VTN strategies. The use of color promoted the encoding and reconstruction of earth science knowledge in memory and enhanced the higher order thinking skills of problem solving. A new metacognitive learning theory (ENACT-AC) is proposed as an explanation for these findings.

Volume 6, Issue 4

• Article 1-
  Which Comes First: Computer Simulation of Dissection or a Traditional Laboratory Practical Method of Dissection
  by Joseph P. Apkan, Saint Joseph's College
  

A conflict exists in the nation's schools over the use of animals in the science classrooms. Animal protection advocates state that what is learned by dissection could be more effectively learned by other means. Some science educators state that dissection does not constitute abuse; they are educationally justified While this issue is fraught with intractable ethical and philosophical traditions and no research study or data can resolve such issues, one ethical implication of the debate is that if dissection is used in American schools, it should be used for maximum educational benefit. This quantitative study was conducted to examine whether computer simulation of dissection is as effective as the traditional hands-on laboratory method of dissection when used as a delivery technique for the understanding of the physiological and anatomical systems of earthworm either before or after dissection. A comparison was made of the knowledge gained between the experimental condition and the control condition. It was found that the experimental condition that used interactive computer simulation of dissection before actual hands-on dissection experienced greater gain on a paper and pencil test of knowledge than did the control condition that dissected earthworms by hand.

• Article 2-
  Content Specific Vignettes as Tools for Research and Teaching
  by William R. Veal, Ph.D., The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

The purpose of this article is to present four content specific vignettes or open cases that can be used for research studies and in methods classes to foster conceptual understanding on teaching and learning. A discussion of why and how to use vignettes and the importance of content specific vignettes are presented. Two chemistry and two physics vignettes are described and included as appendices. In addition, tables are provided that give the pedagogical and content issues and problems associated with the vignettes. Correct content statements are also included so that these can be used in research studies and methods classes. Suggestions and implications are included to guide researchers in the potential areas of implementation.

• Article 3-
  Culturally Relevant College-Level Astronomy Courses for Non-science Majors
  by Greg Townsend, Christendom College

I argue that creating a scientifically literate public requires sensibly paced, experience-orientated courses that allow students to develop a genuine scientific understanding of a limited number of significant scientific ideas by a synthesis of their own experience and thought. These courses need to be coupled with a conscious effort to bring more articulate historical, philosophical and sociological content directly into science courses so the students can development a sense of how concepts and theories originate, how they come to be accepted and how they connect with experiences other than the ones alluded to in traditional textbooks.

Volume 6, Issue 3

• Article 1-
  The "Socialization" and Enculturation of Ecologists in Formal and Informal Settings
  by G. Michael Bowen, Lakehead University
  Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria

Ethnographic studies of scientists and science rarely focus on either the enculturation of scientists-in-training or field scientists (particularly biologists and their "small science" work) but instead focus on experienced scientists who conduct research in laboratory environments. This is relevant to the learning of ecology for the locales where the formal learning about ecology occurs is unlike where ecology research is conducted--laboratory sciences, such as physics and chemistry, learn about the research practices of their discipline in settings similar to the environments in which such research is actually conducted. Drawing on three years of ethnographic work examining the enculturation of ecologists, this paper examines the formal and informal settings in which ecologists learn (about) their discipline and reports on the contributions that each setting makes to learning about the conduct of field research. Often ignored informal aspects of learning about the conduct of ecology research, such as story telling in "leisure" settings, are revealed as being important to becoming enculturated into ecological field research practices.

• Article 2-
  Standardized Testing in Physics via the World Wide Web
  by Dan MacIsaac, Northern Arizona University
  Rebecca Pollard Cole, Northern Arizona Center for Excellence in Education
  David M. Cole , Northern Arizona University
  Laura McCullough, University of Wisconsin-Stout
  Jim Maxka, Northern Arizona University

On-line web-based technologies provide students with the opportunity to complete assessment instruments from personal computers with internet access. The purpose of this study was to examine the differences in paper-based and web-based administrations of a commonly used assessment instrument, the Force Concept Inventory (FCI). Results demonstrated no appreciable difference on FCI scores or FCI items based on the type of administration. A 4 way ANOVA (N = 376) demonstrated expected differences in FCI scores due to different sections of the same sections, different courses and gender. However, none of these differences was influenced by the type of test administration. Similarly, FCI student scores were comparable with respect to both test reliability and predictive validity. For individual FCI items, paper-based and web-based comparisons were made by examining potential differences in item means and by examining potential differences in response patterns. Chi Squares demonstrated no differences in response patterns and t Tests demonstrated no differences in item means between paper-based and web-based administrations. In summary, the web-based administration of the Force Concept Inventory appears to be as efficacious as the paper-based administration.

• Article 3-
  The Tension Between HyperText Environments and Science Learning
  by Gregory R. MacKinnon, Acadia University
  Charles P. McFadden, University of New Brunswick Therese Forsythe, Northeast Kings Education Centre
• Article 4-
  The Effects of English Language Proficiency and Scientific Reasoning Skills on the Acquisition of Science Content Knowledge by Hispanic English Language Learners and Native English Language Speaking Students
  by Hector N. Torres, University of Massachusetts, Lowell Dana L. Zeidler, University of South Florida

The purpose of this paper was to examine the effects of English language proficiency and levels of reasoning skills of Hispanic English language learners and native English language speaking students on their acquisition of science content knowledge as measured by a state-wide standardized science test. The authors suggest that the levels of English language proficiency appear to influence the acquisition of science content knowledge of Hispanic English language learners in the study. The results also suggest that with regards to reasoning skills, students that showed high levels or reflective reasoning skills for the most part performed better on the statewide-standardized science test than students with intuitive or transitional reasoning skills. Furthermore, the findings of the paper imply that high order English language proficiency combined with high levels of reasoning skills enhances students' abilities to learn science content subject matter.

Volume 6, Issue 2

• Article 1-
  The Use of the National Science Education Standards to Critique a Standardized High School Biology Examination
  by ulie F. Westerlund, Ph. D
  Sandra S. West, Ph. D, Southwest Texas State University

Every year, more states are adding standardized state-mandated science achievement tests to their testing programs. However, published analyses of these statewide science examinations are rare. It is critical to evaluate these tests because tests define what will be taught to students. The purpose of this article is two-fold: 1) to provide a brief historical overview of standardized testing in science including its purpose, consequences, characteristics, and evaluation; 2) to provide a critique that is unique in that this study used national science standards to evaluate a state-mandated standardized science test.

• Article 2-
  High School Students' Perceptions of Evolutionary Theory
  by C. Sheldon Woods, Ph. D, DePaul University
  Lawrence C. Scharmann, Ph.D., Kansas State University

The subjects for this study were 518 students, enrolled in grades 9-12, from a large high school in the Midwestern United States. Quantitative and qualitative methods were utilized to examine factors involved in subjects' acceptance of evolutionary theory. A causal-comparative or ex post facto design was employed for the quantitative aspect. The dependent variable was acceptance of evolutionary theory. Independent variables were science locus of control, logical thinking ability, grade level, gender, race/ethnicity, and teacher. In order to answer questions more conducive to qualitative research methods, additional data were collected from semi-structured interviews. Approximately ten percent of the subjects were interviewed. The authors present an examination of perceptions held by high school science students concerning evolutionary theory. This is followed by implications for science instruction. The authors conclude that we need to strive to provide learning opportunities that encourage high school students to find their own "place to stand" between what many perceive to be an "evolution vs. creation" choice. Positioning learners to take that next step is crucial if we are to promote a more adequate understanding of the nature of evolutionary theory and why biologists consider it to be a powerful unifying theme for study in the biological sciences. If we fail to do this, at best we risk students memorizing what they think we want to hear. Worse still, we risk alienating their future study of the biological sciences. Finally, worst of all, we continue to perpetuate a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory among future adults.

• Article 3-
  Teachers’ Beliefs About Accommodating Students’ Learning Styles In Science Classes
  by Lena M. Ballone, Bowling Green State University
  Charlene Czerniak, University of Toledo

Learning styles is a common strand found throughout recent science education reform recommendations. The objective of this study was to examine the influences of teacher beliefs regarding their intent to implement a variety of instructional strategies to meet the needs of different learning styles in the science classroom. Ajzen's (1985) Theory of Planned Behavior was used to investigate the influence of the primary constructs (attitude toward the behavior (AB), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on intent to engage in the targeted behavior. Differences between various teacher populations for the three primary constructs and intent also were examined. Survey research methods were employed to obtain data (n=109 Ohio teachers, randomly selected). Results were statistically analyzed using multiple regression, correlations, descriptive statistics, reliability, ANOVAS, and Sheffe post hoc techniques. Results indicated that attitude toward behavior and subjective norm influenced teachers' intent to implement variety of instructional strategies to meet the needs of different learning styles. Attitude toward behavior was the greatest influence. It was concluded that teacher belief constructs should be considered carefully when planning teacher development programs in order to successfully implement science reform recommendations.

Volume 6, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  Preparing New Teachers to Teach Science: The Role of the Science Teacher Educator
  by John A. Craven III, Queens College/City University of New York
  John Penick, North Carolina State University

America is currently facing a shortage of teachers especially in the areas of math, science and technology. This shortage is particularly severe in urban centers such as New York City, where the number of new teachers needed within the next five to ten years is projected at more than twenty five thousand. The political, economic and logistical pressures this need places on large school systems come at a time when teacher education programs in the state are being forced to reduce the time spent in schools of education. Consequently, the trend in cities such as New York is for administrators to look for expedient operations capable of producing large numbers of teachers quickly. This paper seeks to challenge the prevailing attitudes toward teacher education. With a focus on science education, we attempt to articulate the expert knowledge and skills needed to prepare exemplary science teachers. We argue that before the public's mandate for scientific literacy for all Americans can be achieved, familiar views about the teaching and learning of science must often be challenged through processes requiring time, expertise, and support in professional programs purposely designed to develop exemplary science teachers. In doing so, we hope to define the role the science teacher educator as it pertains to meeting the current goals of science education.

• Article 2-
  Continuation of a Collaborative Approach for Elementary Science Methods Courses:
  Teaching Across Collaborative Highways (TEACH)
  by Beth Shiner Klein, Ed.D., State University of New York at Cortland
  Juanita Jo Matkins, Ed.D., University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
  Starlin D. Weaver, Ph.D., Salisbury University

This article describes the continuation of a project that used collaborative technologies to team teach elementary science methods courses across three different public institutions. Student outcomes for the project indicated positive change in comfort with technology and understanding science education issues. Each of the three faculty members involved in the project share their unique stories of implementation and outcomes as a result of participating in this project.

• Article 3-
  Development and Evaluation of a Standards-Based Approach to Instruction in General Chemistry
  by Eugene P. Wagner, The University of Pittsburgh
  Warren J. DiBiase, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte
  

Operation CHEM1251 is an on-going project designed to implement a Standards-based approach to instruction in the general chemistry curriculum at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. The project is a collaborative effort between the Department of Chemistry and the Department of Middle Grades, Secondary, and K-12 Education. Implementation of such an approach has shown an increase in both student performance and attitude toward chemistry. A Standards-based approach to instruction includes, but is not limited to, block scheduling the entire enrollment of one lecture class into the same laboratory sections and learning experiences structured in a learning cycle format. Analysis of the data gathered during this project indicates that this is the first time in five years that any day-time first semester general chemistry course section scored significantly higher than other concurrent sections on both departmental exams and the American Chemical Society's Nationally Standardized End of Semester Exam.

Volume 5, Issue 4

• Article 1-
  Writing Our Lived Experience: Beyond the (Pale) Hermeneutic?
  by David R Geelan, Edith Cowan University
  Peter C Taylor, Curtin University

In this paper, we make a case for an alternative epistemology of research based on the hermeneutic-phenomenology of Max van Manen (1990). This interpretive approach to understanding the nature of a social phenomenon involves the researcher in making explicit the meaning of a particular lived experience, and generating a pedagogical thoughtfulness in his or her readers. The aim of hermeneutic-phenomenology is to create a dialogical text which resonates with the experiences of readers while, at the same time, evoking a critical reflexivity about their own pedagogical actions.

• Article 2-
  Enhancing Motivation and Teaching Efficacy Through Web Page Publishing
  by Alice A. Christie, College of Education, Arizona State University WestM
  Peter Rillero, College of Education, Arizona State University West JoAnn V. Cleland, College of Education, Arizona State University West Keith A. Wetzel, College of Education, Arizona State University West Ron Zambo, College of Education, Arizona State University West Ray R. Buss, College of Education, Arizona State University West

This article highlights two major benefits of guiding teachers through a collaborative process for developing instructional units and informing them in advance that their work will be published on the Internet. Through a nationally recognized project, in-service and pre-service teachers designed mathematics and science units for their own use, but also for dissemination through the Web. Participants indicated that knowing their work would be published motivated them to produce high-quality work. They also acknowledged that the collaborative process they used to develop these curricular units increased their self-efficacy for teaching mathematics and science.

• Article 3-
  The Science of Nature and the Nature of Science: Natural History Museums On-line
  by Roy Hawkey, The Natural History Museum, London

The websites of natural history museums worldwide contain a wealth of resources relating to the natural world. Much of this content includes high quality material that reflects not only the scientific study of nature but also the very nature of that science. This paper proposes a variety of criteria for evaluating the potential of such sites for enhancing student learning in science, especially in those aspects of the science curriculum concerned with processes, methods, evidence and interpretation. It then uses these to explore a number of natural history museum sites. The analysis reveals a diversity of perspectives and assumptions about the scientific research undertaken in natural history museums, especially in relation to taxonomy and systematics. It also identifies ways in which ideas about science itself – and about learning – are made explicit on museum websites.

• Article 4-
  Daughters with Disabilities: Breaking Down Barriers
  by Penny Hammrich
  Lynda Price
  Graciela Slesaransky-Poe
  Temple University

Daughters with Disabilities has been created to address the fact that individuals with disabilities, especially girls, are widely under-served and under-educated in the areas of science, mathematics, engineering, and technology. The program is designed to encourage more girls with disabilities to prepare for the careers in mathematics, science, engineering, and technology that will dominate the 21st century. This paper describes a program that is breaking down barriers for girls with disabilities in special education settings who are currently educated in an urban public school district. It discusses a summary of the findings of a Demonstration Project funded by the National Science Foundation, while also continuing the dialogue of the challenges faced by both regular and special educators in terms of appropriate science, mathematics, and technology instruction for special needs learners in elementary classrooms.

• Article 5-
  A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Service Teacher Analogies Generated For Process and Structure Concepts
  byKatharyn Ellen Ketter Nottis
  Bucknell University
  Jacqueline McFarland
  Niagara University

Although pre-service teachers may use a variety of instructional analogies to facilitate conceptual understanding of abstract or unobservable ideas, little is known about the analogies they create. This exploratory study was undertaken to determine the effectiveness of science analogies generated by pre-service teachers and whether those analogies varied according to the abstractness of concepts. Sixty, upper-level, pre-service teachers were asked to generate and explain analogies for two science concepts found in elementary texts, the Earth’s interior structure and heat conduction in solids. The Earth’s layered interior was categorized as a “structure” concept and heat conduction in solids was identified as a “process” concept. Each generated analogy was then evaluated using a five-point validity scale that examined the extent to which it accounted for critical aspects of the concepts. Explanations about the generated analogies were also examined to determine conceptual understanding and detect misconceptions. Results showed a significant difference in the validity of analogies created to illustrate a process concept and those created to illustrate a structure concept. Generated analogies also revealed misconceptions about particulate matter, which could compromise their effectiveness for teaching about heat conduction. Implications for generating and using analogies, teacher preparation programs, and future research were addressed.

Volume 5, Issue 3

• Article 1-
  Issues Associated with Inserting Computer Simulations into Biology Instruction:
  A Review of the Literature
  by Joseph P. Akpan, Morehead State University
  

This paper reviewed empirical and theoretical issues associated with inserting computer simulations into biological instruction to help students better understand science concepts. Proponents claim advantages for simulations, such as greater experiential learning and higher student motivation. Critics claim simulations subvert scientific understanding because simulated experiences are insufficiently real. One particular focus was the role of simulations as replacement for dissection of animals. This issue is politically controversial because animal rights activists question the morality of dissection, while others argue that science learning is damaged by failure to experience dissection. While suffering numerous methodological defects, the available empirical research on simulations suggests the following: simulated dissection and actual dissections typically lead to equivalent performance on achievement tests, simulations used before actual dissections may enhance dissection performance, and experiential simulations facilitate learning from subsequent didactic instruction. Implications of these conclusions for education practice were discussed.

• Article 2-
  A Continuum For Assessing Science Process Knowledge In Grades K-6
  by Michael E. Beeth, The Ohio State University
  Linda Cross, Highland Park Elementary, Grove City, OH
  Christy Pearl, Highland Park Elementary, Grove City, OH
  Janice Pirro, Highland Park Elementary, Grove City, OH
  Kara Yagnesak, Highland Park Elementary, Grove City, OH
  Janette Kennedy, Richard Avenue Elementary, Grove City, OH

Accurate assessment of science process knowledge provide teachers, parents and district administrators with information on the effectiveness of enacted curricula, and policy makers with information about the effectiveness of the inquiry based instructional approaches recommended for science teaching and learning. This article reports on the development and implementation of a rubric for assessing science process knowledge in grades K-6. Excerpts from interviews conducted with teachers applying this rubric to assess students' science process knowledge are presented to substantiate claims about the usefulness of the rubric as an assessment tool.

• Article 3-
  Science for Students with Visual Impairments: Teaching Suggestions and Policy Implications for Secondary Educators
  by David Kumar, Florida Atlantic
  Rangasamy Ramasamy, Florida Atlantic
  Greg P. Stefanich, University of Northern Iowa
  

This paper addresses the importance of quality science instruction for students with visual impairments. Literature-based suggestions for modifying science instruction and instructional materials to meet the learning needs of visually impaired students are presented, and relevant examples in physical, chemical and biological sciences are discussed. Also, policy implications for science teacher education, alternative assessment and educational technology are addressed with respect to accommodating visually impaired students in science.

• Article 4-
  Design and Implementation of an On-line Professional Development Community: A Project-Based Learning Approach in a Graduate Seminar
  by James G. MaKinster, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Indiana University
  Sasha A. Barab, Instructional Systems Technology, Indiana University
  Thomas M. Keating, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Boston College

A central challenge in the design of science education graduate seminars is to create a context that will be meaningful to students, and at the same time support students in becoming knowledgeably skillful with respect to the topics of the course. This paper reports on the design and implementation of a project-based learning environment for a graduate seminar that immersed students in a real-world context. This seminar experience was organized around the design, and creation of a real-world "tangible artifact," the Internet Learning Forum (ILF), and embodied many of the design principles for project-based learning environments that have emerged from the literature. The ILF is a video centered, Web-based learning forum designed to support the professional development of in-service and pre-service mathematics and science teachers. Researching, designing and implementing the ILF provided an authentic, situated learning experience for the students and faculty participating in this course. An examination of this process and the theoretical basis behind these efforts serves to inform future project-based learning efforts in science education seminars.

Volume 5, Issue 2

• Article 1-
  Views of Science as Represented in Urban Schoolchildren’s Photographs
  by John Settlage, Cleveland State University
  

This article describes how third graders' photographs were used to assess the influence of hands-on science instruction within an urban classroom. The photos and individual interviews were used to assess: 1) what the students perceived was included and involved with science; 2) how the students connected their school science experiences to their daily lives; and, 3) how the students used their cameras to capture and represent their ideas. The data showed that students were able to connect many aspects of the science content with events outside of school. However, perhaps as a consequence of the task, the students rarely showed science as a way of knowing but often as technology (e.g., electronic devices). Providing children cameras so they can represent their ideas proved to be an important research and assessment strategy.

About the author...
John Settlage is an associate professor of science education at Cleveland State University. The location of his institution has allowed him to become extensively involved with local urban school systems, affording him the opportunity to conduct research such as that presented here. Prior to working in Cleveland, John was a Senior Research Associate at TERC in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He earned his PhD in Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Missouri--Columbia under the guidance of Lloyd Barrow. He teaches science education courses at the graduate and undergraduate level and has recently begun teaching research methodology courses to Master's and Doctoral students. He lives in Cleveland Heights, Ohio with his wife, Sue Stephens, and Sonya, their Siberian Husky.

• Article 2-
  Scientific Worldviews: A Case Study of Four High School Science Teachers
  by William W. Cobern, Ph.D., Western Michigan University
  Cathleen C. Loving, Ph.D., Texas A & M University

In this research the ideas about Nature held by four high school science teachers are used to illuminate how any abstract notion of a scientific worldview does not adequately describe the perspectives of scientifically knowledgeable individuals, such as competent secondary school science teachers. The abstract notion of a scientific worldview is a distortion of the cognitive frameworks held by scientifically knowledgeable people in that the abstraction ignores the broader milieu of a person's ideas, beliefs, and commit-ments. To the extent that the inculcation of a scientific worldview is a proper goal of science education, therefore, our argument is that effective science education will help students develop an understanding of science within broader cultural contexts that include both those who do science and the students themselves. Moreover, science teachers must recognize the cultural embeddedness of their own scientific perspectives.

• Article 3-
  An Innovative College Curriculum Model for Teaching Physical Science to Pre-Service Elementary Teachers
  by James Edward Lilly, Arkansas Tech University
  Rudy F. Sirochman, The University of Southern Mississippi
  

We introduce a curriculum model for teaching physical science to the pre-service elementary school teacher entitled Powerful Ideas in Physical Science (PIPS). This model was developed by members of the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) and is inquiry, hands-on, and discrepant-event based.

Volume 5, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  A Flexible K-12 Weather Data Collection and Education Program
  by Mark A. Mesarch
  S. J. Meyer
  D. C. Gosselin, School of Natural Resources (SNRS), Nebraska Earth Science Education Network (NESEN), Institute of Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln

The Nebraska Earth Science Education Network (NESEN) created a program called Students and Teachers Exchanging Data, Information and Ideas (STEDII) for K-12 audiences that emphasizes data collection mixed with weather education. Curriculum with hands-on activities and basic weather instrumentation are provided to the schools, as well as a method for all schools involved to share data using the Internet. From 1996 to 1999 the STEDII program has had 55 schools participate and during the peak participation period 2500 students were involved. Eleven teachers, who actively participate in the program and represent a range of class sizes and age levels, were surveyed on how they implement the program and make it work for their particular school’s curriculum. Each school uses different approaches and the program has been modified to allow for the flexibility that is needed. However, the basics of data collection and sharing information have remained the same. The vision for STEDII is compared and contrasted from NESEN's and the teachers' points of view. Basic comparisons are made between STEDII and other educational data collection networks, such as GLOBE and One Sky, Many Voices.

• Article 2-
  Global Environmental Priorities of Engineering Students in Krakow Poland
  by Michael Robinson, University of Nevada
  William M. Bowen, Cleveland State University
• Article 3-
  Sketching Some Postmodern Alternatives: Beyond Paradigms and Research Programs as Referents for Science Education
  by David R. Geelan, Institute for the Service Professions, Edith Cowan University
  

Conceptual change pedagogy has been one of the most influential research and teaching programs in science education in the past two decades. This paper argues that Kuhn's and Lakatos' schemes for the philosophy of science have been pervasive metaphors for conceptual change approaches to the learning and teaching of science, and have been used both implicitly and explicitly to provide an organising framework and justification matrix for those perspectives. It is suggested that Lakatos' model of competing 'scientific research programs' may provide a more flexible and powerful metaphor for student learning than does Kuhn's scheme of 'scientific revolutions'. The value of this metaphorical connection between the sociological processes of scientific research and the psychological processes of student learning - between the contexts in which science is conducted and those in which it is learned - is critically discussed with reference to classroom teaching practices. Finally, four alternative perspectives, based in Kelly's 'psychology of personal constructs', Van Manen's 'pedagogical thoughtfulness', Whitehead's 'living educational theory' and Polkinghorne's 'postmodern epistemology of practice' respectively, are described as a set of postmodern referents for science education.

Volume 4, Issue 4

• Article 1-
  The Self-Regulated Learner Advantage:Learning Science on the Internet
  by Jace Hargis, University of North Florida

Science educators recognize the potential of the Internet as an educational tool. One of the major aspects of this study was designed to illustrate the need for self-regulated learning when using the Internet for education. Two alternate forms of an on-line instructional web site containing the same information were developed. The first, a constructivist format provided more links for students to wander and build concepts with the material in ways that may be consistent with their particular learning style. The second is called an objectivist format and is similar to presentations found in academic settings where lectures are provided. This on-line study examined the effect of variables such as age, gender, racial identify, attitude, aptitude, self-regulated learning and self-efficacy on learning. Results indicated that typical learner characteristics were not road blocks to on-line learning.

• Article 2-
  Effect of Gender on Computer-Based Chemistry Problem Solving: Early Findings
  by David D. Kumar, Florida Atlantic University
  Stanley L. Helgeson, Professor Emeritus, The Ohio State University

A study of the effect of gender on a computer-based approach to solving stoichiometric chemical equations is reported. Five chemical equations were presented by a HyperCard program (Hyperequation) on a Macintosh computer to 30 male and 30 female high school students. Scoring was based on correctness of response and rate of attempt. T-test results indicated no significant differences. The implication is that the feedback provided by the software might have had an effect on reducing the gender gap. However, upon a closer examination the results showed that correctness means for males were higher than that for females, and the rate of attempt for males was higher than that for females. Reducing any gender effects in technology based science education remains an area for research and development.

• Article 3-
  Analysing Student-Student Interaction from Cooperative Learning and Systemic Functional Perspectives
  by George M. Jacobs
  Christopher S. Ward

This article uses two sources to derive insights into student-student interaction in science classrooms. From the pedagogic sciences, cooperative learning offers a means of understanding what helps groups of students interact successfully. From the science of language, Systemic Functional linguistics provides a tool for analyzing how people use language to achieve various aims. Cooperative learning and Systemic Functional linguistics are described and then used to analyze a transcript of student-student interaction from an elementary school science classroom. Implications are suggested for improving teaching practice, with particular emphasis on teaching collaborative skills.

Volume 4, Issue 3

• Article 1-
  Building Bridges Between Science and Special Education: Inclusion in the Science Classroom
  by Deborah H. Haskell, Clemson University

Today's science classrooms serve a very diverse student population. Students with special needs who were once instructed in resource rooms and self-contained classrooms are now included in the general classroom. To serve those students for whom inclusion is appropriate, collaboration is needed between the science and special education teacher. With collaboration, the individual needs of all students, both general education and students with learning disabilities, can be met. Only when the science teacher is involved in the planning process and a contributor to the proposed changes, will a true collaboration exist. Too often, the decision making process excludes many of the general education teachers. The Individual Education Plan (IEP) meetings require that only one general education teacher be present. Due to time and budget constraints most schools only include the minimal, one general education teacher, at the IEP meeting. At the secondary level, this leaves most of the teachers a student will be working with uninformed about instructional plans being proposed and decided upon. A four step plan can aid science teachers in becoming active participants in the inclusion process. The plan allows science teachers to become contributors to the way inclusion will be implemented in their classrooms before decisions are made and become part of the legally binding IEP.

• Article 2-
  Standards-Based Education and Its Impacts on Environmental Science Education
  by Dr. George R. Davis,Moorhead State University
• Article 3-
  Inquiry, Nature of Science, and Evolution: The Need for a More Complex Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Science Teaching
  by Charles J. Eick, Ph.D., Auburn University

This qualitative study of the inquiry-based practices of twelve secondary science student teachers (interns) included: (a) their views of inquiry in science (b) their views of inquiry in science teaching and (c) their conceptions of facts, laws, and theories in science (or nature of science)(NOS). Interviews and writing pieces were used to determine views on inquiry and the nature of science. Data from classroom observations, daily lesson plans, and intern/cooperating teacher conversations were used to describe intern practice. Interns used inquiry mainly in the teaching of science concepts and principles. Eleven of twelve interns possessed similar views about the need to use inquiry in science teaching. These eleven interns used some form of inquiry in their classrooms at least twice a week for concept understanding. Only one of these eleven interns possessed adequate conceptions of the nature of science. Five interns viewed theory in science as partially being scientific belief that was not proven. These views appeared influenced by cultural and religious influences. Teaching strict inquiry, the nature of science, and important theories in science (like evolution) for scientific literacy appears at risk for all but one of these preservice teachers. Explicit teaching of science as a discipline, including scientific investigation and the NOS, is recommended immediately following the early stages of teaching and development of initial pedagogical content knowledge.

Volume 4, Issue 2

• Article 1-
  Inquiring into Three Approaches to Hands-On Learning in Elementary and Secondary Science Methods Courses
  by Marianne B. Barnes, Ph.D., University of North Florida
  Kathleen R. Foley, University of North Florida

Three approaches to hands-on science learning were investigated in two contexts, an elementary science methods class and a secondary science methods class. An activity on foam, available on the Exploratorium's Institute for Inquiry web page, was the focus of the study. The students were exposed to a directed hands-on activity, a challenge situation, and an open-ended inquiry setting. Sequence of stations appeared to affect outcomes. Similarities and differences between groups were noted and analyzed. The authors concluded that when developing models for teaching science methods courses, methods instructors need to share power with prospective teachers by providing opportunities for them to both experience and evaluate methodologies, in groups and as individuals.

• Article 2-
  Evaluation of a District-wide Inservice Professional Development Program for Teaching Science: Challenges Faced and Lessons Learned
  by Pradeep Maxwell Dass, Department of Teacher Education, Northeastern Illinois University
  

Nation-wide dissemination of the Iowa Chautauqua Model for inservice professional development of K-12 science teachers has led to new professional development programs in many states. The Collier Chautauqua Program (CCP) implemented the Iowa Chautauqua model at the district level in Collier County, Florida. A formative evaluation of the implementation of CCP focused on teacher enhancement resulting from participation in the program, teacher concerns regarding classroom implementation of instructional innovations, and issues related to district-wide implementation of the program. Results were communicated regularly to the district administrators responsible for program implementation throughout the two-year period of evaluation. A reflective analysis of the process of formative evaluation reveals challenges involved in conducting evaluation activities, limitations of the use of a survey instrument with Likert-type response scale, and limitations of qualitative approaches to data collection. Identification and discussion of these challenges is useful for improving formative evaluations, which in turn should improve the professional development program informed by such an evaluation.

• Article 3-
  Middle and Secondary Science Teacher Opinions about Working in Scientists' Laboratories during Preservice Preparation
  by Claudia T. Melear, Ph. D., Associate Professor, Secondary Science Education Coordinator, The University of Tennessee
  

Science department chairpersons created lists of tasks and benefits which would accrue to preservice teachers while they worked in the scientists’ laboratories. Teachers agreed to a higher percentage than preservice teachers with the scientists as to what those benefits were. Recommendations include ways scientists and science educators can create opportunities for preservice teachers to experience authentic science in ways which provide legitimate peripheral participation in science.

Volume 4, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  An Analysis of the Reliability and Validity of Personal Internet Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Scale
  by Ravinder Koul, The Pennsylvania State University-Great Valley
  Peter A. Rubba, The Pennsylvania State University

This study validated a Personal Internet Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Scale (called PITEBS) with a sample of 389 inservice teachers who were participants in an Internet based professional development project. The scale was then used to assess changes in self-efficacy beliefs among 155 participants of summer workshops. The PITEBS appears ready to be utilized for future research and evaluation studies.

• Article 2-
  Initiation of a Collaborative Approach for Elementary Science Methods Courses: Teaching Across Collaborative Highways (TEACH) 
  by Beth Shiner Klein, Ed.D. State University of New York
  Juanita Jo Matkins, Ed.D. University of Virginia
  Starlin Weaver, Ph.D. Salisbury State University
  

This article describes the process of using collaborative technologies to team teach elementary science methods courses across 3 different institutions: a private liberal arts college, a small state university,and a large research university.  The project was initiated because of the isolation each of the faculty members felt serving as the only science educator (or only elementary science educator) at each of their institutions.  A description of the project and the Internet-based collaborative technologies used at each site is provided.  Each of the three faculty members involved in the project share their unique stories of implementation and outcomes as a result of participating in this project.

Volume 3, Issue 4

• Article 1-
  Improving Graphing Intrepretation Skills and Understanding of Motion Using Microcomputer Based Laboratories
  by Michael Svec, Ph.D., Furman University

The purpose of this study is to examine the relative effectiveness of the traditional lab method and the microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) for improving student understanding. Three areas of achievement were examined: graphing interpretation skills, interpreting motion graphs and understanding of motion The nonequivalent control-group design was selected with the treatment group conducting using MBL activities and the control group employing traditional laboratories. All the students were enrolled in introductory college physics classes. Item analysis revealed both control and treatment groups confused position, velocity, acceleration, and distance, velocity, and acceleration-time graphs on the pre-test. On the post-test, the control group scores improved only slightly. The treatment group demonstrated a less thorough understanding than the control on the pre-test, but the treatment group outperformed the control group on the post-test. Effect sizes were 0.78, 1.71 and 0.88 for graphing interpretation skills, interpreting motion graphs and conceptual understanding of motion respectfully. Results indicate that MBL laboratories are more effective than traditional lab for improving students' graphing interpretation skills, interpreting motion graphs and their understanding of motion. MBL is an effective tool for challenging students' naive beliefs.

• Article 2-
  Pedagogical Content Knowledge Taxonomies
  by William R. Veal, The University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill
  James G. MaKinster, Indiana University, School of Education

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has been embraced by many of the recent educational reform documents as a way of describing the knowledge possessed by expert teachers. These reform documents have also served as guides for educators to develop models of science teacher development. However, few of the current models accurately address the role of PCK in science teacher professional development. This paper presents two taxonomies that offer a relatively comprehensive categorization scheme for future studies of PCK development in teacher education. The General Taxonomy of PCK addresses the distinctions within and between the knowledge bases of various disciplines, science subjects and science topics. The Taxonomy of PCK Attributes identifies the various components of PCK and characterizes their relative importance based on previously published studies. These organizational frameworks will serve to organize and integrate future research efforts.

• Article 3-
  Supporting the Implementation of Inquiry-based Elementary Science Programs: Setting the Stage for Local Reform
  by Andrew T. Lumpe, Southern Illinois University
  Charlene M. Czerniak, Bowling Green State University

The primary goal of this report is to describe the context and support structures involved in the implementation of a National Science Foundation funded professional development program designed to train elementary teachers to use exemplary science curriculum materials. To conduct the program evaluation, a variety of data sources were used including teacher and principal questionnaires, academic year classroom observations, summer institute observations, teacher interviews, project team and Project Director interviews, student interviews, support teacher interviews, and teacher belief instruments. The following essential components were identified for the successful implementation of the systemic reform efforts:


1) purposeful interactions among all important stakeholders in the project;
2) peer mentoring by teacher leaders;
3) purposeful experiences with the science curriculum materials;
4) interdisciplinary connections to other key subjects such as reading and mathematics;
5) adoption of quality science curriculum materials;
6) professional development experiences that promote the nature of science;
7) professional development on science content related to the curriculum materials; and
8) experiences that lead to positive teacher beliefs.

Volume 3, Issue 3

• Article 1 (Featured Article)-
  The Effects of Visually-Enhanced Instructional Environments on Students' Conceptual Growth
  by Eric J. Pyle, West Virginia University
  Jennifer Akins-Moffatt, North Elementary School

This study was designed to (a) determine the effects of visually-enhanced hands-on student instruction as compared with non-visually enhanced hands on instruction, and (b) test the feasibility of using simple concept map-like structures as a means of determining student conceptual growth in a non-language dependent manner. Using Paivio's (1971) Dual-Coding theory and Sutton's (1992) "burr diagrams" as guiding influences to this study, two separate experiments were performed with grade 6 students in a quasi-experimental study in which both groups received instruction in meteorology (experiment 1, n=37) or astronomy (experiment 2, n=57) using at least 50% hands-on activities and investigations. Treatment classes had their instructional environment enhanced by the use of multiple image sources, while the control classes did not. Burr diagrams with content concept words were used in a pretest-posttest fashion to determine students' conceptual growth. Independent samples t-tests of gain scores on the burr diagrams indicate a significant difference between the two classes in both experiments, implying that the use of visual enhancements is an effective augmentation strategy for hands-on learning. In addition, burr diagrams proved a simple and quick indicator of student conceptual growth. Additional studies will determine the reliability of both the visual enhancements and the burr diagrams themselves.

Volume 3, Issue 2

• Article 1-
  Virtual Interns In The Field: Pre-Service Educators As Online Mentors
  To At-Risk Middle School Science Students
  by Joseph Winslow, Assistant Professor of Instructional Technology, School of Education, Coastal Carolina University Doug Smith, Assistant Professor of Education, School of Education, Coastal Carolina University

Assistant Professor of Education
School of Education,
Coastal Carolina University

• Article 2-
  Using the Construction of a Science Education Web Site as a Focus of a Directed Study Course in Undergraduate Elementary Science Education
  by Scott P. Lewis, Florida International University
  George E. O’Brien, Florida International University
  Jessica A. George, Miami-Dade County Public Schools

This article describes the construction of an elementary science education Web site in a collaborative effort involving two university faculty members and two undergraduate elementary education program preservice teachers. The preservice teachers worked on the development of the site as part of a Directed Study Course after their semester long participation in a science methods class. This "Web Site Group" worked with several classes of elementary science methods students and in-service teachers to provide on-going feedback on the development of the Web site. With the current emphasis on connecting classrooms to the World Wide Web (WWW) and training teachers how to use this technology, collaborating with preservice teachers to develop a Web site provides faculty with more time and expertise to complete such a project. For the preservice teachers, these types of collaborations can be important in developing skills valuable to their own teaching, and in building leadership capabilities in science and technology. A tour of the site is provided with hypertext links.

• Article 3-
  Putting Constructivist Teaching into Practice in Undergraduate Introductory Science
  by Rene' T. Stofflett, Ph.D., Dept of Curriculum & Instruction, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
  

The purpose of this study was to examine the process that one instructor of undergraduate introductory science underwent when she attempted to execute constructivist teaching into practice. The instructor had experienced a major conceptual change while enrolled in a summer graduate-level science education course. She worked collaboratively with a mentor during the following fall semester, reflecting weekly while watching a videotape of her teaching. Data were collected in the form of interviews, journal entries, observations and videotapes. The instructor demonstrated that the four criteria for conceptual change (IPDF) had been met. Three critical variables were identified that affected the implementation process: the university context, the instructor's emotional response, and the mentoring relationship. Recommendations were made for facilitating pedagogical conceptual change into constructivist college science teaching practices.

Volume 3, Issue 1

• Article 1-
  Enhancing Conceptual Learning By Understanding Levels Of Language-Rich Teaching
  by K. David Pinkerton, Ph. D., Curriculum and Instruction Department, University of Denver Cherry Creek Public Schools, Smoky Hill High School

Any number of successful teaching strategies use a mixture of methods rich in language use to enhance conceptual learning. Not all language-rich teaching leads to equivalent conceptual gain. A year-long study was conducted in 3 high school physics classes to provide empirical support for the existence of levels of language-rich teaching. Three levels (low, medium, and high) of language-rich teaching were investigated. Each level was characterized by a unique language-rich teaching method: low level by hands-on, medium level by small groups, and high level by active mental processing (AMP) journal keeping. Once a week, each level experienced a lesson that promoted linguistic interaction prompted by accomplishing a task. The hands-on group formed lab teams to design and conduct a short experiment. The small group class solved textbook problems in small cooperative groups. The active mental processing (AMP) group responded to teacher prompts regarding demonstrations by writing in journals and structured discursive interaction. All of the remaining four lessons per week were identical.  First semester post tests revealed the order of class means to be: hands-on < small group < AMP journal. Males consistently scored better than females, but female gain scores paralleled male gain scores for both semesters. At the beginning of the second semester, the hands-on and small group classes were taught in the AMP journal method as well as the AMP journal class from the first semester. Small group and hands-on classes improved more than the AMP journal class suggesting that high level language-rich teaching intervention can help enhance conceptual learning in classes taught by primarily a hands-on or small group approach.

• Article 2-
  Realism versus Constructivism: Which is a More Appropriate Theory for Addressing the Nature of Science in Science Education?
  by Brian Campbell, Ph. D., Southwestern Oklahoma State University

There are many versions of constructivism. While the various guises of constructivism have much in common, they also have many differences. During the last thirty plus years, certain aspects of constructivism have been adopted in the teaching of science. While generally this has been hailed as an improvement over a didactic teaching style and a positive change for science education, there have been voices of dissent. One common argument against a constructivist approach is that it contains elements of instrumentalist, operationalist, and idealist epistemologies that distort the true nature of science including the goals of science and how scientists actually operate. It has been argued that, while some constructivist components are useful in science education, a pedagogy based more on a realist epistemology would better serve the nature of science element of a science curriculum.

• Article 3-
  A Study of Preservice Science Teachers' Interactions with a Web-Based Forum
  by Alec M. Bodzin, Department of Math, Science, and Technology Education, North Carolina State University
  John C. Park, Department of Math, Science, and Technology Education, North Carolina State University

In order to examine the potential benefits and existing barriers of preservice science teachers engaging in an electronic professional community on the World Wide Web, we have constructed a "Web Forum" called the SciTeach forum. A survey was given to each of our 22 preservice science teachers at the end of their student teaching semester to identify the barriers they encounter when using a "Web-based forum" on the Internet during their student teaching experience. Our results indicate that the predominant barriers that preservice science teachers encounter when using the SciTeach forum appear to be a lack of adequate access to a networked computer and structuring time to engage in the web forum dialogue. Our preliminary findings also suggest that by using telecommunications with a "Web forum" structure, preservice science teachers can provide each other with socioemotional support. Much variance exists with regard to our students teachers' attitudes perceptions of their experiences with interacting with the SciTeach forum. This variance might be attributed to learning styles, personality characteristics, or the students' comfort level and previous experience using telecommunications technology. Although there are barriers to overcome, a "Web-based" forum appears to be effective instrument to provide support to a cohort group of preservice science teachers during their student teaching semester.

• Article 4-
  Mentoring Future Mentors: The Preparation of Science Teacher Educators
  by John A. Craven, III, Queens College/City University of New York

This paper presents arguments for the need to examine programs that prepare science teacher educators and discusses the significant role that mentoring plays in preparing future science teacher educators. Second, this paper examines features of an exemplary mentor model from a doctoral program within science education and argues that a formal program of mentoring the preservice science teacher educator must be part of all advanced graduate programs. Lastly, this paper explores the application of an exemplary mentor model to other dimensions within teacher preparation.

Volume 2, Issue 4

• Article 1-
  Professional Development for Elementary Teachers: A Collaborative Effort Involving A University, a Forest Learning Center, Industry, and State Agencies
  by M. Faye Neathery, Southwestern Oklahoma State University
  Justine Glynn, Gulf of Maine Aquarium
  Katherine Long, University of Mobile

This professional development collaborative involved state agencies, local industry, an outdoor learning center, a university, and teams of teachers from rural schools. The Habitats and Their Conservation program had three main goals: to encourage inqu iry-based approaches to teaching science in the elementary classroom, to utilize field experiences in forestry habitats and a river delta to connect the program to real-life applications, and to improve the technological skills of the teacher-participants . Twenty elementary school teachers representing teams participated in a series of daylong workshops that involved the teacher-participants in hands-on, inquiry-based approaches to learning in formal and informal settings. A post-project questionnaire des igned by the author to determine attitudinal change and confidence levels of teaching revealed that the teacher-participants expressed a significant commitment for teaching more environmental science in their classrooms, an increase in content knowledge, and a higher confidence level for teaching environment science. A follow-up questionnaire was administered to the teacher-participants after a year of implementing the teaching strategies and environmental science activities. A commitment to teach more en vironmental science was still evident, but not significantly. The teacher-participants did not perceive an increase in their principals' interest in their teaching environmental science activities

• Article 2-
  Follow-up Survey of Physics Student Attitudes on Differing Modes of Access to Problem Solutions
  by Edward S. Ginsberg, University of Massachusetts
  Regina M. Panasuk, University of Massachusetts

Use of end-of-chapter textbook problems for teaching and assessing concepts in introductory physics is widespread, as is restriction of student access to the solutions (Ginsberg, Panasuk & George, 1997). We recently surveyed student attitudes on access to problem solutions (Ginsberg & Panasuk, 1998), sampling the enrollment in a large calculus-level course offered in spri ng 1996. For most of the course, student access was restricted to assigned problem solutions, placed on library reserve after discussion in class and collection of homework. During the last two weeks, however, solutions to all textbook problems in three c hapters were made available. We seized the opportunity to survey student attitudes toward these altered circumstances, collecting responses from 128 students. The survey instrument contained two multiple-choice questions, one open-ended question, five Lik ert-scale questions, and space for comments. Results confirm a definite preference for freer access to solutions. Responses to direct-comparison questions suggest enhanced student engagement with problems, a desirable learning indicator.

Volume 2, Issue 3

• Article 1-
  The Importance for Preservice Teachers to Have Practice Experiences to Apply Theory to Reality
  by Besty Price, Curator of Education, The Tracy Aviary

Do preservice teachers need more practice to develop strong technology and teaching skills before they go into student teaching? To investigate this question, two biology education majors were observed in an independent study course in which they practiced theory previously learned in their methods classes. The two undergraduates used computers and the Internet to answer science questions from middle school students, to interact with diverse students, and to build an interactive website, all while working in a constructivist environment. At the beginning of the course they did not have adequate skills to develop Internet materials, the expertise to use the education literature effectively, or the experience to create a constructivist environment, and they were unable to answer questions at the students' interest and academic level. Only after practicing these skills did the biology education majors feel comfortable and confident to begin a teaching assignment

• Article 2-
  Survey of Physics Student Attitudes on Access to Problem Solutions
  by Edward. S. Ginsberg, University of Massachusetts
  Regina M. Panasuk, University of Massachusetts

Solving problems is one of the preferred methods for teaching and assessing concepts in introductory physics. Most instructor